From EvoWiki

According to mainstream science, the universe is approximately 13.7 billion years old. It is thought that our universe's existence can be traced back to an event in space-time known as the Big Bang. Scientists are unsure what caused this event but it is thought that matter, space and time itself came into being from a single point in the universe in an initial expansion and has been expanding ever since. This single point is known as a singularity. Because of the Big Bang, subatomic particles formed into atoms, atoms into molecules, right up to the formation of stars. Stellar evolution and the supernova of stars are what led to the formation of all the heavy elements that are required for life here on Earth.

Contents 1 Earth's formation 2 First Life 3 Ages of the Earth 3.1 Hadean 3.2 Archean 3.2.1 Eoarchean 3.2.2 Paleoarchean 3.2.3 Mesoarchean 3.2.4 Neoarchean 3.3 Proterozoic 3.3.1 Paleoproterozoic 3.3.2 Mesoproterozoic 3.3.3 Neoproterozoic 3.3.3.1 Tonian 3.3.3.2 Cryogenian 3.3.3.3 Ediacaran 3.4 Phanerozoic 3.4.1 Paleozoic 3.4.1.1 Cambrian 3.4.1.2 Ordovician 3.4.1.3 Silurian 3.4.1.4 Devonian 3.4.1.5 Carboniferous 3.4.1.5.1 Mississippian 3.4.1.5.2 Pennsylvanian 3.4.1.6 Permian 3.4.2 Mesozoic 3.4.2.1 Triassic 3.4.2.2 Jurassic 3.4.2.3 Cretaceous 3.4.3 Cenozoic 3.4.3.1 Paleocene 3.4.3.2 Eocene 3.4.3.3 Oligocene 3.4.3.4 Miocene 3.4.3.5 Pliocene 3.4.3.6 Pleistocene 3.4.3.7 Holocene 4 Major Extinction Events 4.1 Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Event 4.2 Late Devonian Extinction Event 4.3 Permian-Triassic Extinction Event 4.4 Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event 4.5 Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction Event 4.6 Pleistocene-Holocene Extinction Event 5 Tree of Life 5.1 Bacteria 5.2 Archea 5.3 Eukaryia 6 Acknowledgments 7 See Also

Earth's formation

Our Earth formed quite some time after the universe did, scientists believe, based on current evidence, that it formed around 4.57 billion years ago. Our planet happens to be in the habitable zone for life. Venus is too close to the sun and a runaway greenhouse effect due to a large amount of volcanic eruptions in the geologic prehistory of Venus has rendered the planet uninhabitable. Mars is further away but if the atmosphere was thicker, life may be possible there as well[1], although it would still be a harsher existence than here on earth. Conditions on mars would be comparable to the Arctic. Some scientists believe that microscopic life did once exist on Mars when it was covered by oceans around 4 bya in the Phyllocian era of martian prehistory. Scientists do not rule out primitive life now.

First Life

For the first 500 or 600 million years of the Earth's history, scientists believe that there was no life. The planet was constantly bombarded by meteors and comets and a collision with a Mars-sized planet known as Thea is believed to be what formed our moon. Around 4.4 billion years ago, scientists believe that Earth developed oceans. This likely occurred because icy comets collided with the Earth. An atmosphere formed and rain began to fall. Around 4 billion years ago, scientists speculate that life began to form.

Ages of the Earth

Hadean

The Hadean was the first period in Earth history. The Hadean occurred around 4.57 billion years ago to 3.85 billion years ago. The first lifeforms self replicating RNA molecules appeared during this time around 4 billion years ago. Also the atmosphere, the moon, and the oceans formed during the Hadean. The Hadean eon is sometimes divided into four unofficial eras the Cryptic, Basin Groups, Nectarian and the Lower Imbrian that correspond to lunar geologic eras.

Archean

The Archean was The second eon in geological history. The Archean occurred between 3.85 billion years ago to 2.5 billion years ago. The first simple prokaryotic cells appeared. Photosynthesis also evolved in the Archean. The atmosphere became oxygen rich and the first supercontinents Vaalbaria, Ur and Kenorland formed during this time. The earliest rock formation on Earth, the Isua greenstone belt, also formed during the Archean eon around 3.8 Bya. The Archean is divided in to 4 Eras the Eoarchean ,Paleoarchean ,Mesoarchean and the Neoarchean.

Eoarchean

The Eoarchean was the first Geological Era of the Archean Eon. The Eoarchean lasted from 3.8 billion years ago to 3.6 billion years ago. The first supercontient Vaalbaria appeared in the Eoarchean Eon around 3.6 billion years ago and broke up completely around 2.8 billion years ago in the Mesoarchean Era. The oldest rock formation on earth the Isua greenstone belt appeared during the Eoarchean around 3.8 billion years ago and contain bands of organic carbon witch may indicate that photosynthesis may have evolved during the Eoarchean Era. The name is derived from two words eos (dawn) and archios (ancient).

Paleoarchean

The Paleoarchean was the second era in the Archean eon. The Paleoarchean spans the period of time around 3.6 Billion years ago to 3.2 Billion years ago. The first ascertained life form (A unicellular stromatolite colony dating from 3.5 billion years ago found in Australia) appeared in this era. Also the first two of the three domains of life on earth the archaea and the eubacteria descended from the Last universal ancestor (Or the theoretical latest living organism (or organisms) that all modern life on earth descended from) during this era. Unicellular colonies of Cyanobacteria known as Stromatolites that were common throughout both the Archean and the Proterozoic first appeared in the Paleoarchean era.

Mesoarchean

The Mesoarchean was the third geological era within the Archean eon. The first supercontient Vaalbaria which formed during the Eoarchean around 3.6 billion years ago broke up completely during this period around 2.8 billion years ago and a new supercontinent Ur formed around 3 billion years ago. Although Stromatolites appeared earlier in the Paleoarchean Stromatolites only started to become common in the Mesoarchean era.

Neoarchean

The Neoarchean Era was the final geological era in the Archean eon. the Neoarchean spans the period of time from 2.8 billion years ago to 2.5 billion years ago. Oxyphotosynthesis first evolved in the Neoarchean and was probably the cause of the environmental crisis known as the oxygen catastrophe that happened around 2.4 billion years ago in the following Paleoproterozoic era due to a poisonous buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere produced by the oxyophotosynthesing autotrophs which evolved in the Neoarchean around 2.7 billion years ago. A new supercontinent Kenorland also formed in the Neoarchean around 2.7 billion years ago.

Proterozoic

The Proterozoic happened around 2.5 billion years ago to 542 million years ago. The last eon of the Pre-Cambrian period. The Proterozoic saw the evolution of advanced unicellular and multicellular life such as the Ediacaran Fauna. The first primitive plants and animals near the end of this period around 600 million years ago. The Proterozoic eon is divided in to three eras the Paleoproterozoic ,Mesoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic..

Paleoproterozoic

The Paleoproterozoic is the first Geological era of the Proterozoic eon. The Paleoproterozoic occurred around 2.5 billion years ago to 1.6 billion years ago. Complex cells known as Eukaryotes evolved around 2.1 to 1.6 bya in the Paleoproterozoic through a fusion of two or more cells which probably were at first an anaerobic and aerobic cell that began to fuse in order to assist the anaerobic cell in surviving the extremely oxygenated atmosphere that was a result of the Oxygen Catastrophe that occurred around 2.4 billion years ago in the Siderian period of the early paleoproterozoic era due to the abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere that resulted from the evolution of oxyphotosynthesis around 2.7 billion years ago in the previous Archean eon the abundant oxygen caused an ecological crisis that resulted in the extinction of many forms of life on earth due to the fact that most or all of life on earth was adapted to carbon dioxide rather than oxygen. Also the Archean continent Kenorland broke up in the early Paleoproterozoic and the Paleoproterozoic supercontient Colombia formed around 1.8 billion years ago and broke up around 1.5 billion years ago in the following Mesoproterozoic era. Also one of the most severe ice ages in geologic history the Huronian glaciation occurred around 2.4 billion years ago to 2.1 billion years ago possibly as a result of the oxygenated atmosphere and the absence of green house gasses such as carbon dioxide that resulted from the Oxygen Catastrophe. Some scientists believe that the Huronian glaciation was a world wide ice age similar to the snowball earth event which happened later in the Cryogenian period of the Neoproterozoic Era around 850 to 630 million years ago.

Mesoproterozoic

The Mesoproterozoic was a geologic era that occurred between 1.6 billion years ago and 1 billion years ago. The paleoproterozoic supercontient Colombia broke up during the Mesoproterozoic era around 1.5 billion years ago and a new supercontient Rodinia formed around 1.3 billion years ago from about three pre-existing continents, in an event known as the Grenville orogeny. Rodinia became fully assembled around 1 billion years ago and broke up around 750 billion years ago in the Neoproterozoic Era. Rodinia may also have been responsible for the generally cold climate of the following Neoproterozoic Era. Other events that occurred in the Mesoproterozoic era include the appearance of the first multicellular organism which was a red algae known as Bangiomorpha pubescens which appeared around 1.2 billion years ago And the evolution of sexual reproduction around the same time Bangiomorpha pubescens appeared. Also all geologic activity on the moon stopped around 1.1 billion years ago in the Mesoproterozoic era.

Neoproterozoic

The Neoproterozoic was a eon in the geologic history of the earth that occurred within the Proterozoic eon around 1 billion years ago to about 542 million years ago. Multi-cellular algae became abundant around 1 billion years ago in the Tonian Period. Also the first true animals appeared around 600 Mya in the Ediacaran Period of the protozoic and were accompanied by an enigmatic set of fauna known as the Ediacaran Biota which appeared around 610 million years ago and have been described by scientists in many ways such as being a totally new Phylum of animals ,as a group of cnidarians or as being related to modern animals (such as Spriggina which may have been a possible precursor to the Trilobites). The first fossil Bilaterian animal Vernanimalcula guizhouena also appeared in the Ediacaran period of the Neoproterozoic around 580 million years ago. Also the earliest animal with sight and eyes and the first possible anomalocarid Bomakellia kelleri evolved during the Ediacaran period. The Late Mesoproterozoic and early Neoproterozoic supercontient Rodinia completely broke up in the Neoproterozoi] around 750 million years ago in the Cryogenian period. It is thought that the supercontinent Rodinia played a major role in the Snowball Earth event and causing the cool climate of the Neoproterozoic as well as possibly playing a part in the origin of the first animals. A worldwide ice age known as Snowball Earth occurred between 850 to 630 million years ago. Volcanoes possibly ended the snowball earth event by realizing co2 into the atmosphere which trapped heat and warmed the earths climate. Some scientists believe that the Snowball Earth event spurred on the diversification of life at the end of the Proterozoic and the beginning of the Cambrian known as the Cambrian explosion while others believe that the Snowball Earth Event delayed the diversification of multicellular life. The Neoproterozoic ended around 542 million years ago when the first abundant shelled animals appeared.

Tonian

The Tonian (from Greek tonas, "stretch") is the first geological period of the Neoproterozoic era. It started around 1 billion years ago and ended around 850 million years ago. The first multicellular life is known to have occurred during this time period in the form of green algae. The small animal like microorganisms known as the Acritarchs greatly increased in diversity in the tonian era. The supercontinent Rodinia also began to break up at the end of this period.

Cryogenian

The Cryogenian period is the second period of the Neoprotozoic era. It began approximately 850 million years ago and ended around 630 million years ago. This period is known for its severe ice ages, at least two of them occuring in the Cryogenian. The first glaciation lasted 50 million years from 750 million years ago to 700 million years ago, the second terminated around 635 million years ago, near the end of the Cryogenian. It is speculated that the glaciations were so severe that they covered the entire surface of the planet, resulting in Snowball Earth. It is also thought that this glaciation is what delayed the diversification of multicellular life that first appeared in the Tonian until the Ediacarian and the Cambrian. The supercontinent Pannotia also began to form during this period.

Ediacaran

The Ediacaran period lasts from 630 million years ago until 542 million years ago. It is the first period that sees the real diversification of multicellular life. Many primitive animals appear in this period or in the late Cryogenian. This diversification predates the Cambrian explosion and helps refute Creationist claims that all life suddenly appeared in the Cambrian. The Ediacaran fauna is not as diverse as that which would follow in the Cambrian but primitive molluscs and arthropods have been identified. Sponges were also well established by this time. Some Ediacaran fossils are problematic, scientists have trouble assigning them to a particular phylum of animals and some even speculate that some of these creatures represent extinct lineages of eukaryotes which are not animals.

Phanerozoic

From 542 million years ago until today. This eon saw the evolution of all major phyla, including humans, who have only been on earth for around 3 million years (less than 200,000 in their modern form).

Paleozoic

The Paleozoic era happened around 542 million years ago to 250 million years ago. Life diversified at the beginning of this era, in an event known as the Cambrian explosion. The Paleozoic is the first era of the Phanerozoic eon. It saw the colonization of land by first plants and then animals. Fish, amphibians, reptiles, and the ancestors of mammals all evolved during this era. The era went out with a bang as well in the Permian mass extinction in which scientists speculate that as many as 90% of living species at the time went extinct. The cause of this extinction event is suspected to have been climatic and environmental changes brought on by the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea, and the resultant glaciation when each end of the supercontinent passed over the North and South Poles although many other scientists believe that the Permian-Triassic extinction event was caused by a super nova that occurred close enough to earth to trigger a mass extinction such as the Permian-Triassic extinction event. The Paleozoic is divided in to six periods the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and the Permian.

Cambrian

The Cambrian spans from 542 to 488 million years ago. In the Cambrian period the first abundant fossils of hard shelled animals appeared and animals were more diverse in the Cambrian than in the Proterozoic because of an event known as the Cambrian explosion which was the geologically sudden appearance in the fossil record of the ancestors of more recent animals, estimated to take about 10 million years from 530 to 520 Mya in the Early Cambrian Epoch. Almost all modern phyla (Except for the bryozoans witch appeared later in the Ordovician period) have already appeared slightly before the Cambrian or in the Cambrian. Also, the first possible tracks on land, made by two species of Arthropods, referred to as Protichnites and Climactichnites, were made around 530 million years ago. Protichnites also may have been made by the ancestor of the predatory, scorpion-like arthropods known as the Eurypterids that thrived in the rest of the Paleozoic era. Trilobites which thrived throughout the early Paleozoic era also appeared in the Cambrian and they may have evolved from smaller soft bodied form es such as Spriggina that lived in the earlier Neoproterozoic era. Traditionally it has been believed that land plants did not exist in the Cambrian period and the first land plants appeared later in the Ordovician period around 474 million years ago but however the molecular clock suggests that land fungi may have appeared much earlier around 1 billion years ago in the Tonian period of the Neoproterozoic era and plants may have appeared on land around 650 million years ago in the late Cryogenian period in the neoproterozoic era. Also the Cambrian saw the appearance of warmer climates than in previous periods in the Proterozoic such as the Cryogenian period when the world wide ice age Snowball Earth happened.

Ordovician

The Ordovician began around 488 million years ago after an extinction event known as the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction event and ended around 443.7 million years ago with one of the most severe extinction events in earth history known as the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event in which 60 percent of all life went extinct. There are many theories that explain why the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event may have happened. Some geologists and paleontologists suggest that the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event was caused by a short gamma ray burst that destroyed most of the ozone layer and exposed terrestrial and marine surface-dwelling life to deadly solar radiation ,however other scientists have suggested that a ice age at the end of the Ordovician period caused the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event because the end Ordovician was one of the coldest times in the last 600 million years of earth history. But however the majority of scientists agree that the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event had a multiple set of causes like the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Also the Ordovician featured an adaptive radiation of fauna though not as large of an adaptive radiation of fauna as the Cambrian explosion. Many new fauna Also the first plants, Bryophytes (mosses), and fungus may have appeared on land in the Ordovician period. Although fish like chordates such as Haikouichthys have existed on earth since the Cambrian period, the first true vertebrates, in the form of Arandaspis and its relatives, only appeared during this time period. The first Corral reefs appeared in the Ordovician period as well as the first jawed fish and the first primitive sharks which appeared later in the Late Ordovician epoch.[2] Trilobites were still numerous and successful in the Ordovician and in the following Silurian period. Although primitive mollusks appeared much earlier in the Cambrian Period or in the Neoproterozoic Era they started to become abundant and diverse in the Ordovician Period.

Silurian

The Silurian period spans from 443.7 to 416 million years ago. The Silurian period was named after a Celtic tribe known as the Silures by a geologist known as Sir Roderick Murchison. Many evolutionary breakthroughs occurred during the Silurian such as the appearance of the first coral reefs although many paleontologists and geologists say that the first coral reefs appeared much earlier in the Ordovician period. The first vascular plants (such as Cooksonia) as well as the first true leeches and the first bony fish, the Osteichthyes appeared in the Silurian period. Fish reached considerable levels of diversity during the Silurian period and some species of fish evolved movable jaws. The Eurypterids (colloquially called "Sea Scorpions") became very diverse and one genus, Pterygotus grew to 4 meters long during the Silurian period. The Trilobites were still thriving in the Silurian period. Relatives of modern spiders and millipedes thrived alongside the earliest vascular plants in the Silurian period and mollusks also became more diverse during the Silurian. The climate in the Silurian was generally warm and earth was going through a green house phase during the Silurian period but however the climate cooled slightly in the late Silurian but in the Silurian-Devonian boundary, the climate became warmer again. Due to the warm climate much of the worlds ice caps melted in the Silurian period and contributed to a rise in sea level. The majority of continents converged at the equator and formed a minor supercontinent at the end of the Silurian known as Laurussia. The Silurian was ended my a minor extinction possibly caused by a meteorite impact or climate change.

Devonian

The Devonian period occurred around 416 million years ago to 359 million years ago the Devonian saw many changes on life on earth such as the evolution of the first tetrapods or four legged animals around 365 ma ,the appearance of the first insects around 416 Ma and the appearance of the first trees, Wattieza and the first forests in the Late Devonian around 380 ma [[3]].The Devonian has also incorrectly been called a "greenhouse age", due to sampling bias: much of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from Eastern North American and western European strata, which at the time straddled the Equator as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where fossils of widespread reefs indicate mostly tropical climates that were warm and moderately humid but in fact the climate in the Devonian differed greatly between epochs and geographic regions. For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and South America had a warm temperate climate. In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common. Also the armored jaw less fish known as ostracoderms were declining in diversity and instead the jawed fish were thriving and increasing in diversity in both the oceans and freshwater. The supercontinent Pangaea also began to assemble in the Devonian. The Devonian ended with a mass extinction which killed off 75% of all life known as the Late Devonian extinction the causes for the Late Devonian extinction are not well known.

Carboniferous

The Carboniferous period occurred around 359 Ma to 299 Ma the Carboniferous period witnessed many large steps in the evolution of life on earth such as the appearance of the Amniotic Egg (or the egg that can hatch on land without the embryo drying up) around 340 million years ago which allowed the first fully terrestrial animals initially primitive basal tetropods such as Casineria around 314 million years ago but however early reptiles like Hylonomus began to evolve and exploit new niches on the land around 314 million years ago soon after the basal tetropods appeared (although the amniotic egg and primitive reptiles may have appeared earlier in the Carboniferous around 350 million years ago as the discovery of a new fossil tetrapod Westlothiana lizzae may suggest but however there is considerable debate as to whether Westlothiana lizzae was an early reptile or a primitive species of tetrapod). Also the Carboniferous was the first of the three golden ages of sharks or one of the three times in earths history that sharks were most diverse (the other three golden ages of sharks being the Triassic and the Eocene.) because sharks reached one of their highest levels of diversity during the Carboniferous and replaced most large primitive jawed fishes such as Dunkleosteus as the dominant predators in the sea. Trilobites began to become extremely rare during the Carboniferous period because the majority of Trilobites went extinct in the Devonian-Carboniferous extinction event around 359 million years ago. Also Large primitive forests composed of very tall fern like trees such as Lepidodendron which grew to as high as 98 feet spread across the equator During the Carboniferous period. Insects and amphibians were very large during this time (Some members of the order Protodonata (the Prodonta were an ancient order of insects that resembled dragonflies and were related to dragonflies but were much larger) such as Meganura moni and had wingspans of up to a meter wide.) due to the large amount of oxygen produced by the expanding forests and the moistness of the environment. Many scientists estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, compared to 21% today. [4] also due to the high oxygen content wildfires would have been fairly common throughout much of the Carboniferous period. Also the climate during the Carboniferous was relatively cool compared to the climates of the Devonian, Ordovician and the Silurian due to the high oxygen content in the atmosphere. Also the supercontinent Pangaea formed during the Carboniferous although Pangaea reached its final form in the Permian period.

Mississippian

The Mississippian was the third sub-era of the Carboniferous period that lasted from 359 to 325 million years ago. The amniotic egg which allows the embryo to survive on land without drying up evolved in this sub-period along with the first fully terrestrial tetropods the basal tetrapods around 340 million years ago to enable animals to live a fully terrestrial existence. The Appalachian Mountains also appeared during the Mississippian sub-period.[5] Also the small shelled protists known as the foraminifera rapidly diversified during the missippian sub era and reached their highest level of diversity during the Mississippian sub-period (although foraminifera existed since the Cambrian period and still exist today in the Holocene epoch). Trilobites were rare during the missippian because many trilobites went extinct during the Carboniferous-Devonian extinction event around 359 million years ago ,but however the proetid group of trilobites continued to survive during both the missippian sub-period and the following Pennsylvanian sub period. The Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian sub-periods are sometimes treated as separate geologic periods in north America although they are not considered separate periods in Europe and most of the world.

Pennsylvanian

The Pennsylvanian is a sub-period of the Carboniferous period lasting from roughly 325 to 299 million years ago. The Pennsylvanian saw the evolution of the first undisputed reptile Hylonomus around 314 million years ago. The Pennsylvanian witnessed the high point of primitive stem tetrapod evolution and primitive Synapsids made their appearance during the Pennsylvanian and early Synapsids and reptiles eventually replaced the stem tetrapods as the most successful group of tetropods during the Paleozoic at the end of the Pennsylvanian sub-period. Also the Pennsylvanian sub-period saw the appearance of the order of large dragonfly like insects known as the Protodonata which included the species Meganeura monyi which had a wingspan up to a meter wide. On the land, swamps and forests continued to expand throughout the equator and the tropics and hosted a variety of flora ,such as tree ferns which grew to 15 meters (or 49.2125 feet) in height and primitive Conifer-like plants which often grew as tall as 40 meters (or 131.233 feet). The Paleozoic supercontient Pangaea first formed in the late Pennsylvanian as a result of a collision between the supercontinents Gondwana and Laurasia. The majority of coal used by humans comes from coal deposits dating back to the Pennsylvanian that were the remains of rotting vegetation which existed in the forests of the Pennsylvanian sub-period.

Permian

The Permian which spans from 299 million years ago to 251 million years ago is the final period of the Paleozoic era. Although Synapsids appeared earlier in the Carboniferous period around 324 million years ago the Permian era witnessed the diversification of Synapsid or mammal like reptiles and their descendants. Early Mammals descended from some of the early synapsids that survived the extinction at the end of the Permian eon. Many other important groups appeared in the Permian such as the including the first Coleoptera (beetles) ,the first Diptera (flies) and the first archosaurs witch would later evolve into the Dinosaurs in the Triassic. Carboniferous Flora (And giant insects) still thrived at the beginning of the Permian period although Carboniferous Flora began to become less common in the Middle Permian because the climate began to become dryer ,the temperature greatly increased and the level of oxygen in the atmosphere dropped and as a result more hardy Conifers began to replace the older species of conifers such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria although more primitive conifers such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria (And giant insects and amphibians.) continued to thrive longer on the small island Continent South china than on the mainland of Pangaea. The majority of the worlds land masses except some small islands and portions of Asia (Such as South China) were united Into one large Continent known as Pangaea and as a result the climate varied extremely across Pangaea and it also appeared that deserts were wide spread across the Pangaen landscape. The end Permian extinction event was the most severe extinction in the last 600 million years of geologic history because many scientists estimate that the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event killed off anywhere from 90 to 99% of life on earth. There are many explanations of why the Permian-Triassic extinction event happened including a meteor impact, a Hypernova that occurred very close to the earth. A change in the climate the formation or a combination of all of those causes that is oftenly humorously referred to by many paleontologists as Murder on the orient express[6].

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic lasted from 251 million years ago to 65 million years ago. This is the age of the reptiles and dinosaurs. The Mesozoic Era saw the evolution of angiosperm plants as well as birds. Mammals existed during this period but for the most part were small because dinosaurs and other large reptiles were the dominant fauna of the day. Birds evolved from small carnivorous therapod dinosaurs. The era ends with the Cretaceous mass extinction 65 million years ago when an asteroid collided with the Earth.

Triassic

The Triassic period which ranges from 248 million years ago to 199 million years ago was the first period in the Mesozoic era. Life on earth was less diverse and less numerous in the Triassic period than in the Permian period due to the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Many new life forms evolved to fill the massive amounts of niches left open by the Permian-Triassic extinction event such as the predatory aquatic reptiles known as the ichthyosaurs, the first flying reptiles known as the Pterosaurs and the first Dinosaurs and the first Mammals although the Dinosaurs were not the dominant animals on land during the Triassic and the dinosaurs became successful only after the end Triassic extinction occurred and the mammals only became successful in the Paleocene after the Dinosaurs went extinct in the Kt Event millions of years later. Many flora and fauna that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event flourished (such as the cycads which formed large forests and were the dominant flora of the Triassic). The earliest species of turtles appeared in the late Triassic era. The Triassic was the second golden age of sharks because sharks also increased greatly in diversity in the Triassic due to the large amount of niches left open by the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Most of the worlds land masses were still joined in one land mass known as Pangaea. the climate in the Triassic was somewhat similar to the climate of the Permian because the climate was generally dry and was prone to extreme changes and cross-equatorial monsoons due to the fact that large landmasses such as Pangaea often have changing and unstable climates. The Triassic period ended around 199 million years ago in a major extinction event known as the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event which eliminated 50% of life on earth and allowed the dinosaurs to dominate the following Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.

Jurassic

The Jurassic was the second geological period in the Mesozoic era that began around 199 million years ago and ended around 144 million years ago. The flora and fauna of the Jurassic was vastly different from the flora and fauna of the previous Triassic period. The Jurassic was the first geological period that archosaurs such as the dinosaurs were the dominant organisms on the earth. Also the first birds (such as Archaeopteryx [7]) evolved from small feathered dinosaurs such as Compsognathus [8] in the Jurassic period. Marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs ,plesiosaurs and marine crocodiles were also very common during the Jurassic period. The terrestrial flora was dominated by many Families of conifers such as the Araucariaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae, Taxaceae and Taxodiaceae. Ginkgos and tree ferns were also common in the forests of the Jurassic period although Ginkgos were less common in the Southern Hemisphere than in the rest of the world. Cycads were still abundant in the Jurassic period. Many new groups of invertebrates appeared during the Triassic, such as rudists, a reef-forming variety of bivalves and belemnites. Also the the infraorder of large predatory dinosaurs known as the Carnosaurs which thrived throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous and included the famous order of dinosaurs known as the tyrannosaurs that evolved and thrived during the following Cretaceous period. The supercontinent Pangaea began to break up in the Jurassic into two smaller continents Laurasia and Gondwana. The climate in the Jurassic was usually less dry than the climate of the Triassic period and as a result lush jungles began to cover much of the landscape.

Cretaceous

The Cretaceous period was the final period of the Mesozoic era. The Supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into modern contents during the cretaceous period. The supercontinent of Gondwana was intact at the begging of the Cretaceous although it broke up into smaller modern landmasses in the Middle Cretaceous and the Late Cretaceous. The climate in the Cretaceous was mostly warm and humid. But however the climate in the Cretaceous was not as humid as the climate of the Eocene epoch. Many new clades of dinosaurs such as the Ankylosaurians and the Tyrannosaurs(which included the famous carnivorous dinosaur t.rex that thrived in the late Cretaceous from 70 to 65 million years ago).appeared around the end of the period. Marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs were still common throughout much of the Cretaceous period. The insects increased in diversity in the Cretaceous period and the first ants ,termites and mosquitoes evolved during the Cretaceous period. Modern sharks also became more diverse in the Cretaceous than in previous periods. The large flying reptiles known as the Pterosaurs (such as Quetzalcoatlus who was 40 feet long) declined in diversity during the Cretaceous due to competition with modern birds and eventually went extinct with the dinosaurs in the K-T event around 65 million years ago. The Cretaceous period ended around 65 ma in an extinction event known as the K-T event. 50%-85% of life on earth including the Dinosaurs and the Ammonites went extinct during the K-T event around 65 million years ago. The K-T event allowed early mammals to dominate the land and diversify into many niches left open by the K-T event in the following Cenozoic Era.

Cenozoic

The Cenozoic era occurred around 65 million years ago to present. The current era we live in. Known as the age of the mammals, the continents drifted into their current locations and life began to progressively look more modern throughout the era. Grasses evolved during this era as well as apes, and our direct ancestors. At the end of the Cenozoic era, a bipedal primate resembling humans emerges. The Cenozoic is divided into two periods and seven epochs. There are two systems for dividing up the Cenozoic into periods. The traditional one groups the first five epochs into the Tertiary and the Pleistocene and Holocene into the Quaternary. However, now scientists have renamed the Quaternary the Neogene and placed the Miocene and Pliocene in with the Pleistocene and Holocene. The Tertiary has been renamed the Paleogene, which now consists of the Paleocene, the Eocene, and the Oligocene. For simplicity sake, only the epochs will appear here.

Paleocene

The Paleocene was the first epoch of the Cenozoic, it immediately followed the Cretaceous mass extinction event. The epoch lasted around 10 million years from 65 million years ago to 55 million years ago and saw the exploitation of niches by mammals. The most successful group of mammals are the placental mammals (to which we belong) and by the end of the Paleocene, small rodent-like mammals had spread across the Earth and had already begun diversifying into new, larger forms. Also large flightless predatory birds known as Terror Birds (such as the six foot terror Bird known as Gastornis) appeared during this time. Marine life at the begging of the Paleocene was not very diverse due to the KT-event but however marine life greatly increased in diversity later in the Paleocene and sharks began to become abundant again do to the extinction of the predatory aquatic reptiles that dominated the seas in the jurassic and the Cretaceous periods and the tropical conditions of the Paleocene. Although it is usually thought that the dinosaurs went extinct before the Paleocene a hadrosaur leg bone has been found in Paleocene strata dating from 64.5 million years ago which may indicate that some clades of dinosaurs may have survived the KT-event and may have persisted into the early Danian stage of the of the Paleocene.

Eocene

The Eocene was the second epoch of the Paleocene. The Eocene epoch occurred around 55 million years ago to 34 million years ago. Animals resembling modern birds first evolve, and the perissodactyls have already begun diversifying into horses, rhinoceroses, palaeotheres and brontotheres. Mammals in the Eocene (Such as Leptictidium and Propalaeotherium) were generally 60% smaller than animals in the Paleocene because the worlds climate was much warmer during the Eocene than in the Paleocene and tropical rainforests covered much of the world at this time. It also has been noted that the first primates appeared in the Eocene around 55 Ma however new fossil evidence and the Molecular clock indicates that Primates may have appeared earlier in the Cretaceous period around 80 Mya. Also the Eocene was the third golden age of sharks because sharks reached a considerable amount of diversity in the Eocene. Primitive ,crocodile-like ,carnivorous amphibious whales such as Ambulocetus evolved from early dog-like hoofed animals such as Pakicetus around 50 million years ago in the early Eocene and large carnivorous salt water whales such as Basilosaurus gradually evolved from amphibious whales around 39 million years ago in the late Eocene. Also the first horse Hyracotherium appeared around 50 million years ago in the early Eocene epoch.

Oligocene

The Oligocene was the third epoch of the Cenozoic era. The Oligocene epoch extends from 34 million years ago to 23 million years ago. Snakes and lizards diversified during this era. While mammals were the dominant fauna of the day, reptiles were still more abundant during this epoch than they are today. The Oligocene periods name comes from the Greek words ὀλίγος (oligos, few) and καινός (kainos, new) because of the sparsity of additional modern mammalian faunas after the Eocene period. The Oligocene epoch begun at the end of a major extinction event which most likely resulted from a multiple set of events including climate change ,a drop in sea level and the impact of several asteroids in Siberia. Also although Grasses evolved during the Eocene grasses became much more diverse and expanded beyond the water-bank habitat of the Eocene into more open habitats during the Oligocene epoch. Snakes and lizards also diversified during the Oligocene epoch. The climate in the Oligocene epoch was cooler than the climate of the Eocene but was warmer than today's climate.

Miocene

The Miocene was the fourth epoch of the Cenozoic period. The Miocene occurred around 23 million years ago to 5 million years ago. This epoch saw the evolution of wolves, raccoons, bears, modern crows, modern ducks, and apes. At the end of this epoch it is believed that humans and chimpanzees shared their last common ancestor around 7 million years ago. Miocene fauna in most of the world was similar to modern fauna although the fauna of Australia and South America were noticeably more primitive than the rest of the worlds fauna due to geographic isolation. The marine fauna of the Miocene was also very similar to the marine fauna of today. Modern sharks began to become more common in the Miocene and the largest predatory fish that ever lived, the prehistoric shark megalodon, also evolved during this period around 16 million years ago and continued to thrive into the early Pleistocene when it went extinct around 1.6 million years ago. Although the climate of the Miocene was noticeably warmer than today the climate of the Miocene mas more similar to the modern climate than the climates of previous epochs. The world began to look more modern in the Miocene although Florida and large parts of Europe were still underwater and South America and north America were not connected and were geographically isolated from each other.

Pliocene

The Pliocene was the fifth epoch of the Cenozoic. The Pliocene lasted only 3 million years, from 5 million years ago to 2 million years ago. This epoch saw hominids progressively become more human. At the end of the epoch, the earliest members of the genus Homo evolved. The Pliocene epoch also saw a cooling climate which ended with the Pleistocene glaciations. Also the land bridge between north America and south America known as the isthmus of panama formed around 3 million years ago and allowed for the exchange of fauna between north America and South America but however the isthmus of panama also diverted a cross-equatorial current that flowed between north and South America since the Mesozoic Era towards north America and Europe thereby creating a warmer climate in Europe and North America. The first saber-toothed cats and the first Hyaenas also appeared during this time. Ice caps formed at the poles during the Pliocene around 3 million years ago. The primate population in Europe and Asia declined during this time but however rodents slightly increased in diversity in Europe and Asia as well as the Americas during the Pliocene. The Terror Birds also went extinct during this period. Seals ,whales and sea lions thrived in the Pliocene oceans. The Pliocene ended with a minor extinction event that was possibly caused by a set of supernovas that occurred somewhat close to earth.

Pleistocene

The Pleistocene was the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic era, it lasted from 2 million until 12,000 years ago. It is also known as the Ice Age. The Pleistocene is fondly remembered for its megafauna such as giant sloths, mastodons, woolly mammoths, and Neanderthals. This is the first epoch in which clearly recognizable humans are present from start to finish. Modern humans evolve in the Late Pleistocene around 200,000 years ago. It ends with the retreat of the last glaciers and the advent of agriculture. Some argue that we are still in the Pleistocene and that the current interglacial will come to an end within the next few thousand years. Apparently we are already due for an ice age (although anthropogenic global warming may be preventing it from happening or at the very least is delaying it). The end of the Pleistocene was marked by retreating glaciers and by the extinction of many large megafauna including mammoths, giant sloths, sabre toothed tigers, and neanderthals.

Holocene

The Holocene is the current epoch in which we now live. It marks the entire time scale of modern human civilization from the advent of agriculture in the Neolithic to the present. It started around 10,000 B.C. and is ongoing. Young Earth Creationists believe that the entire history of the universe occurred during the Holocene, ignoring critical fossil, geological, molecular, and astronomical evidence.

Major Extinction Events

Throughout the history of life there have been many major extinction events where anywhere from 50% to 90% of species go extinct in a very brief amount of geological time (usually less than one million years). Causes of major extinctions have included global climate change, possible supernovas of nearby stars, massive volcanic eruptions, asteroid/comet collisions with the earth, and now a mass extinction event in modern times caused by a bipedal ape.

Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Event

The Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Event occurred about 444–447 million years ago and 49% of genera of fauna went extinct during this event. It is believed to have been caused by a drop in sea level due to glacier formation from an ice age in the Hirnantian faunal stage of the Ordovician period which ended the warm greenhouse like climates that were common throughout the Ordovician. The level of CO2 in the atmosphere dropped which affected the climate and life in the seas. Sci